The Catacombs: A Peek Into the Early History of Christianity

Since the beginning of time, humans have been fascinated by higher powers, by the unknown, the unseen. Many religions have developed from this fascination, some flourish while others fizzle. What aspects of a certain religion give it more legitimacy than others? What was it about Christianity that eventually allowed it to gain popularity and respect in a previously pagan society? Sadly, very little literature (except for what is written in the New Testament) exists about the early history of the religion. But fortunately, buried deep below the outskirts of the city of Rome are the final resting places of early Christians, decorated with symbols and inscriptions that allow us to study the early evolution of this growing religion. These well preserved paintings and dedications allow us to study the early traditions and the beliefs of the budding Christian church, as well as track the fascinating evolution of customs and beliefs during the first 400 years after the birth of this powerful religion.

Early Christianity

During the first century AD, numerous religions were forming, but Christianity edged its way to the forefront and eventually became a hugely popular and respected religion throughout Rome and the rest of the western world. But times of pain and desperation were common for these dedicated early Christians. This monotheistic religion required its followers to worship only one God, and this was a problem in the Roman Empire. Christians refused to worship and sacrifice to the emperor due to their unique belief in only one God, which separated them from other existing and assembling religions. Christians were often blamed for flooding or poor crops because of their failure to provide the proper sacrifice to the corresponding god. Two of the cruelest emperors, Nero and Diocletian, subjected Christians to death by flame, stones, animals, as well as countless other painful and inhumane executions. Those who died gruesome deaths in the name of Christ were called martyrs.

Why would early Christians subject themselves to this torture? There are multiple aspects of Christianity that made it appealing to the masses, appealing enough to justify losing one’s life. The adoption of Jewish history and traditions gave the religion legitimacy in non-Christian circles, and the promise of eternal life after death drew many individuals to accept Christ as their personal savior. This promise made it worthwhile to suffer in the name of Christ, and martyrs were admired for being killed for professing their faith. Additionally, the sense of love and focus on community support as opposed to self-sufficiency was attractive to many. The hope of a future gave those who were struggling and in pain a purpose to continue pressing forward in the name of Christ. They suffered through uncertainty and a life of worrying about imminent torture in the hope of eventually being in a better place for eternity.

The Catacombs

Deep below the outer limits of the city of Rome are the burial places of over six million Romans. Because they were used for burial uninterruptedly from the early second to late fifth century, the catacombs hold the majority of early Christian art and written history. Despite the myths, the catacombs were not used for hiding for the early Christians. This myth came from a story about the Christians “hiding in the graveyards”. In reality, this probably meant above ground burial places or simply outside the city. The 60+ catacombs are all located outside the city limits of Rome due to a Roman law that forbid the burial of the deceased inside the city. Not only used for burial, the catacombs allowed the early Christians a place to worship, fellowship, and carry out their rituals such as the Eucharist, which was the breaking of bread to represent Christ’s body and the drinking of wine to represent Christ’s blood. 

One of the many hallways that lead through the catacombs

Despite popular belief, the catacombs were not exclusively Christian, and before the practice of burying the deceased in the catacombs, the Christians practiced other burial techniques. In fact, the absolute earliest date found for any of these below ground burial places is the early second century AD, at least 100 years after Christianity began to develop. Though the current pagan practice was to be cremated, Christians preferred to be buried whole in the way that Christ was laid to rest. Studies show that before the catacombs were used to house the dead, Christians would bury the dead amongst non-Christians in pagan necropoleis. As these grounds got crowded, the only logical place to move was deep down below the ground. Early pagan underground graves called hypogeum were unorganized and mainly housed family graves, and they could only be accessed from the burial grounds above.

By the third century, the effort to build below the ground became more coordinated. The below ground graves called catacombs, meaning “from the hollows” in Greek, began to house entire communities, not just families. These graves were built anywhere from twenty to one hundred feet under the earth, and were often built from the remnants of old quarries. The entire city of Rome is built on top of a layer of tuffa, a volcanic rock with a sandy texture that is perfect for the construction of these burial grounds. Before it is exposed to air, it is soft and easily quarried, but after it hits oxygen, it hardens and is strong enough to adequately support resting bodies.  When the catacombs were first gaining popularity, it was the families of the deceased who would perform burial rituals and actually lay the body to rest. But soon, there were people called fossores who would dig the graves, bury the deceased, and work day after day in these undesirable conditions below the surface.

Individual bodies were buried in loculi, which were the slits in the wall where the bodies were laid. They varied in size, supporting one or two bodies of different statures. The loculi were stacked 5 or 6 high on each wall, and there was no visible hierarchy in which people were buried. The wealthy were buried right next to the poor, showing the community focus of the early Christians. The bodies were prepared and wrapped in sheets the way that Christ was put to rest, and then sealed off with a sarcophagus. Sarcophagi, literally meaning flesh eaters, were like modern day gravestones. They commemorated the dead lying behind them with inscriptions including the name, date of death, and a short dedication, and were often decorated with symbols and small trinkets pressed into the stone. Wealthier families often constructed an acrosolium, which is an arched tomb that was larger and usually painted and ornately decorated. 

Loculi of varying sizes to accomodate adults and children and babies

By the fifth century, burial in the catacombs had lost much of its appeal. The Edict of Milan was in effect by 313 AD which made Christianity legal, and by 391, Christianity was the official state religion. Churches were built inside the city, so it was no longer necessary for Christians to go below the ground to perform the Eucharist. Plus, less space was needed for burial due to the declining Roman population, and the Germanic invaders who would raid the tombs and remove valuables that were buried with the bodies made burying the dead within the city near churches much safer and more desirable. However, the catacombs were not forgotten; from the fifth to the eighth century, pilgrims from all over the world would come to visit the martyrs. It was believed that touching and paying respect to the martyrs would increase one’s chances of ascent into heaven. This same concept explains why it was so popular to be buried in close proximity to the martyrs and the popes.

During the ninth century, church leaders sealed the entries to the catacombs and moved the bones of the martyrs to rest near the churches for ease of access and to protect these precious remains from grave robbers. Gradually, because they were no longer in use, Christians forgot about the catacombs, and they would not be rediscovered again until the sixteenth century.

Early Christian Art in the Catacombs

Since it was illegal to build churches in Rome and Christianity was not to be openly practiced, the catacombs served as a place for early Christians to express their faith in action as well as art. These expressions are still important today, and much of the iconography used back then still exists. We still view Christ similarly to how he was first depicted by artists in the catacombs. By studying the evolution of this art, we are able to trace the lengthy early history of this religion. Much of the art is well preserved due to its protection from the wind and rain, and unlike many other early monuments, the pigment still exists on the majority of the paintings.

Early Christian art stressed the humanity and approachability of Christ, depicting him as a young man and humble figure. It relied heavily on symbolism, and was used to arouse emotion and reflect the beauty of the God the creator. Art was extremely important due to the fact that many people were illiterate during this time, so Christian iconography was also used to tell the stories of the Bible in order to attract converts. 

An example of an early depiction of the Good Shepherd

Some of the art in the catacombs is clearly pagan, showing that the catacombs were not strictly Christian burial places. Christian and pagan art differed little with regards to style and technicalities, but as time went on, the Christian iconography developed uniquely. Early Christian art consisted of pagan symbols transformed to symbolize Christian ideals and beliefs. The shepherd was interpreted to represent the Good Shepherd, as Christ who would watch out for every single sheep and rejoice when it was found. This symbol is repeated over and over in the catacombs, and is often accompanied by other rustic motifs such as birds, flowers, and peacocks. Other pagan symbols such as the fish, dove, olive branch, anchor, and ship were adopted by the Christians and interpreted in order to represent their ideals. Because these symbols are neutral, it is rather difficult to determine whether they are Christian or pagan.  

A depiction of the ambiguous symbols of the fish and the anchor

By the 3^rd century, Christians began to develop a more distinct set of symbols and icons. During this period of catacomb art, Old Testament themes were over three times more popular than New Testament stories. The story of Jonah, the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham, Daniel in the lion’s den, and the three youths in the furnace all repeat over and over in the catacombs dated to this time. While these specific stories are frequently repeated, others do not appear at all. It seems that the stories that illustrate God’s faithfulness and allude to rebirth and resurrection are all highly popular. These themes are appropriate, being that the catacombs were burial places for the bodies of common people who believed that they would rise from the dead and ascend into heaven like Jesus, as well as those who placed their faith in God and suffered because of this. Though the essence of Christianity is spelled out in the New Testament, the focus of this early Christian art was Old Testament scenes, giving Christianity needed legitimacy in non-Christian circles. Most of the successful religions were based on a rich history, and so Christianity succeeded partially by emphasizing their roots in Old Testament (Jewish) history and interpreting those stories to predict ones that occur in the New Testament.  

A depiction of Jonah being thrown to a sea monster

By the fourth century, New Testament stories were gaining popularity. During this time, Christianity had the same rights as other religions; therefore, the art became less neutral and more specifically Christian. The shepherd motif began to disappear, and Jesus became the centrally important figure. Old Testament scenes do not disappear, but because Christians are not forced to conceal their beliefs, they use this freedom to overtly express the essence of the Christian religion.

Priscilla Catacombs 

Deep below the surface on the northeast border of the city is where 40,000 early Christian graves are located. Common citizens are buried among seven popes and over 360 respected martyrs in a 3 floor network of burial halls in both an old quarry and network of water channels (as evidenced by sloping floors to allow the water to flow). Priscilla was a member of the Acili Glabriones family, a wealthy and aristocratic group that converted to Christianity and donated their land to the community.

There are three specific points in the Priscilla catacombs that are vital in our research and understanding of early Christian art and traditions. The Capella Greca, or Greek Chapel, forms part of the hidden portico, which was a large room where the Eucharist was performed. There is a large fresco in the center of seven people breaking bread, which is an allusion to the New Testament story of feeding the 5,000 people. Around this image are images of other stories, including Moses drawing water from the rock, Susanna and the elders, three youths in the furnace, Jonah and the whale, and the raising of Lazarus from the dead. All of these stories are examples of God’s faithfulness when his commandments are followed, or allusions to Christ’s ascent into heaven, two concepts very important to early Christians. The Velatio is the other important point in the Priscilla catacombs. This famous fresco depicts a woman in 3 stages of life: marriage, childbirth, and the ascent of her soul into heaven. Surrounding her are images of Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac, the good shepherd, and other rustic symbols. Located elsewhere in the catacombs is the first documented depiction of the Madonna and child. This vital icon is still used today, and the study of the transformation of this symbol can give us information on the evolution of Christian ideology through artistic style.  

The ceiling of the Capella Greca or Greek Chapel which formed part of the hidden portico, an area used to perform the Eucharist.

Archaeology of the Catacombs 

                  The catacombs remained sealed and forgotten about until the discovery of the Vigna Sanchez catacomb outside the city on the southwest side of Rome. Because of the religious consequences of the research at this time of the counterreformation, archaeology of the catacombs lagged behind other projects. Two men are responsible for much of the knowledge that we have today on the catacombs. During the sixteenth century, Antonio Boscio used a systematic approach to discovering new catacombs. He divided the outskirts of Rome into highway zones and studied the itineraries of the pilgrims who visited the martyrs in order to discover new burial places. Giovanni Batista de Rossi picked up where Boscio stopped, but he placed more of an emphasis on discovering evidence and uncovering the chronology than on discovering the link between the church of the past and the one of today.

Both of these men devoted their lives to research in the catacombs, and can take credit for much of the knowledge that we possess about them today. Studying the history that they have uncovered allows us to understand the early evolution of this religion that took the western world by storm, and gives us a basis for understanding later changes in the ideology and traditions of the Christian church.

Works Cited

Benko, Stephen, and John J. O'Rourke . "The Catacombs and the Colosseum; the Roman Empire as the Setting of Primitive Christianity". 

 

Falacy, Callie. “Enter Into the Underground”.  http://honorsaharchive.blogspot.com/2004/09/enter-into-underground.html. 2004.

 

Fiocchi Nicolai, Vincenzo, Fabrizio Bisconti, and Danilo Mazzoleni. The Christian Catacombs of Rome : History, Decoration, Inscriptions. Regensburg: Schnell & Steiner, 1999. 

 

Pergola, Philippe, Francesca Severini, and Palmira Maria Barbini. Christian Rome : Early Christian Rome : Catacombs and Basilicas. Roma: Vision, 2000. 

 

Rutgers, Leonard Victor. Subterranean Rome : In Search of the Roots of Christianity in the Catacombs of the Eternal City. Leuven: Peeters, 2000. 

 

Shubin, Andrew. “Early Christian Imagery in the Catacombs of Priscilla.” http://honorsaharchive.blogspot.com/2008/07/early-christian-imagery-in-catacombs-of.html. 2007.

 

Stevenson, James,. The Catacombs : Rediscovered Monuments of Early Christianity. London: Thames and Hudson, 1978.